Institute of Transportation Studies
UC Berkeley Traffic Safety Center
( University of California, Berkeley)
Year 2003 Paper UCB - TSC - TR - 2003 - 10
Rural Road Links: A Review on Current
Research Projects & Initiatives Aimed at
Reducing Vehicle Crash Fatalities on
Rural Roads
Lesliam Quiros Barrett Shaver
U. C. Berkeley U. C. Berkeley
This paper is posted at the eScholarship Repository, University of California.
http:// repositories. cdlib. org/ its/ tsc/ UCB- TSC- TR- 2003- 10
Copyright  c 2003 by the authors.
Rural Road Links: A Review on Current
Research Projects & Initiatives Aimed at
Reducing Vehicle Crash Fatalities on
Rural Roads
Abstract
Rural America accounts for a smaller and more dispersed portion of the na-tion’s
population, yet it comprises a considerable portion of the transportation
system. Rural areas account for approximately 83 percent of the land in the
U. S and their roads account for 80 percent of the total U. S. road mileage and
40 percent of the vehicle miles traveled. Fatalities on rural roads surpass those
in urban areas, even though urban areas are more densely populated and con-sequently,
have a higher traffic flow. In 2001 alone, fatal crashes on rural areas
accounted for 61 percent of all traffic fatalities, 39 percent of the vehicle miles
traveled, and 2 percent of the population ( 2001 Accident Facts). Due to the high
number of traffic fatalities on rural roads many organizations, including univer-sity
traffic safety centers and federal organizations, have focused some of their
research and time to reducing fatalities and improving road safety in rural areas.
Although most of the document focuses on non farm motor vehicles, a small sec-tion
has been allocated for farm vehicle accidents, including transportation ve-hicles
that get farm workers to and from their jobsites. This document presents
some of the more significant current research/ technologies being implemented
and studied in the area of rural traffic safety to address fatalities in these ar-eas,
contains suggestions for further research, and identifies any gaps in existing
knowledge and research wherever possible.
Rural Road Links: A Review on Current Research Projects & Initiatives Aimed
at Reducing Vehicle Crash Fatalities on Rural Roads.
Lesliam Quirós, MS
University of California at Berkeley
School of Public Health
August 6, 2003
2
Table of Contents:
Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………
Background ……………………………………………………………………………
Information Gathering Methodology ………………………………………………..
Farm Vehicles …………………………………………………………………………
Federal Initiatives/ Projects ………………………………………………………..…
California Initiatives/ Projects………………………………………………………..
Research at other Universities ……………………………………………………….
Suggestions for Further Research/ Findings ………………………………………...
References …………………………………………………………………….……….
Appendix ………………………………………………………………………………
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4
5
6
7
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10
11
12
3
Introduction
Rural America accounts for a smaller and more dispersed portion of the nation’s
population, yet it comprises a considerable portion of the transportation system. Rural
areas account for approximately 83 percent of the land in the U. S and their roads account
for 80 percent of the total U. S. road mileage and 40 percent of the vehicle miles traveled.
Fatalities on rural roads surpass those in urban areas, even though urban areas are more
densely populated and consequently, have a higher traffic flow. In 2001 alone, fatal
crashes on rural areas accounted for 61 percent of all traffic fatalities, 39 percent of the
vehicle miles traveled, and 2 percent of the population ( 2001 Accident Facts). Due to the
high number of traffic fatalities on rural roads many organizations, including university
traffic safety centers and federal organizations, have focused some of their research and
time to reducing fatalities and improving road safety in rural areas. Although most of the
document focuses on non farm motor vehicles, a small section has been allocated for
farm vehicle accidents, including transportation vehicles that get farm workers to and
from their jobsites.
This document presents some of the more significant current research/ technologies being
implemented and studied in the area of rural traffic safety to address fatalities in these
areas, contains suggestions for further research, and identifies any gaps in existing
knowledge and research wherever possible.
4
Background
When it comes to vehicle crashes, rural areas have a higher preventable mortality rate
than urban regions. This is due to a number of factors such as: driver behavior,
excessive speeds and lack of speed enforcement ( the predominant underlying cause of
road fatalities), access to emergency services, longer distances traveled, remoteness of
areas, animals crossing roads, road conditions/ maintenance, road design, weather, lack of
lighting on roads, and infrastructure.
Driver behavior greatly influences the fatality rate on rural roads. Drivers tend to think
they are “ safer” on rural roads since they are less congested with traffic, forget they have
to share the roads with farm vehicles and animals, and tend to speed since they know that
speed enforcement is lax. Speeding reduces the reaction time drivers have to avoid
crashes, which not only increases the likelihood of crashing but also increases the
severity of crashes that occur. It increases the distance needed to stop a vehicle and in
addition, speeding drivers may not be able to judge distances accurately, which puts other
vehicles and pedestrians at greater risk. Speeding, however, is a somewhat complicated
issue to assess due to the nature of rural roads ( sparse, desolate areas) and rural county
capabilities. These characteristics make enforcement a complex task.
Fatalities are more prevalent in rural areas not only due to vehicle speed, but also because
emergency services are not always administered in time due to the long distances that
must be traveled to and from the crash scene. Other factors such as road design and
conditions also affect fatality rates. Rural roads may be straight, narrow, curvy, hilly, or
icy imposing a greater risk for drivers since these conditions influence driver behavior
and vehicle control. Lack of signage and non controlled intersections also contribute to
driver behavior and consequently rural road fatalities. Infrastructure is another parameter
in the rural road fatality equation since rural towns have not always had the resources or
means by which to address rural road accident prevention strategies. However, this trend
is changing. The increasing number of fatalities due to the factors mentioned has drawn
more attention to rural roads and organizations are focusing on applications and solutions
to reduce fatalities on these scenic yet deadly roads.
5
Information Gathering Methodology
Information was gathered via the internet, library databases such as TRIS, Melvyl,
TOXLINE, and Medline, review of journal articles, contacting local/ state authorities, and
a secondary analysis of the data gathered.
Keywords used in the search:
- Rural safety - Rural traffic safety
- Farm road safety - Agricultural traffic safety
- Rural roads - Farm vehicle safety
- Collisions on rural roads - Rural ITS
- Farm roads - Rural road design
- Tractor safety - Raiteros
- Pedestrian safety in rural areas - Children safety on rural roads
- Funds for rural traffic safety
6
Farm Vehicles
When focusing on rural road vehicle accidents there can be a break down between farm
and non- farm ( motor) vehicle accidents and each one must be treated differently and
separately. Farm vehicles include vehicles such as tractors and means of transportation by
which farm workers get to and from their job sites every day, which is for the most part
done by raiteros - van operators who charge farm workers $ 4 to $ 6 daily for rides to
work.
Tractor accidents are the leading cause of farm fatalities ( California Farm Bureau
Federation). According to an epidemiological study done in 1996, rural farm vehicle
crashes were greater than non- farm vehicle crashes on paved roads and on roads with
non- hard surfaces. Among fatal farm vehicle accidents, 58% collided with non farm
vehicles; drivers were older ( 42 years old was the mean age) and were most likely males.
Issues underlying tractor accidents/ fatalities include roll- over, extra riders, collisions with
other vehicles/ sharing of public roads, power takeoff entanglements, contact with
overhead electrical wires, and mechanical aptitude. In order to address accidents
involving tractors many public campaigns have been launched by states like Florida,
Minnesota, California ( UC Davis Farm Safety Program), and Texas to train and educate
farm vehicle drivers on the dangers of tractors.
Accidents involving the raiteros deal more with noncompliance of vehicles that do not
have any seat belts for riders and are sometimes modified to fit 20- 50 people. Current
regulations allow for van modification variability. A van can carry more than nine farm
workers if it is inspected by the CHP ( California Highway Patrol) for safety and is
insured; however if farm workers are charged a fee for transportation, the driver must
register as a farm- labor contractor ( FLC) with federal and state governments. Even
though regulations exist, illegal operation of agricultural labor vehicles exists. Drivers
don’t always register as an FLC and this places farm workers at a greater risk since the
vehicles are noncompliant and unsafe. Many farm workers make private arrangements
with raiteros so the compliance of those vehicles is questionable. Some educational
campaigns have also been launched to alert farm workers on this matter and reporting of
illegal/ unlicensed vehicles is encouraged.
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Federal
In general, federal funding for roads and highways depends on Congress’ agenda. More
money is usually allocated to those issues Congress considers as high priority such as seat
belt use and preventing impaired driving. Funds are usually distributed to those initiatives
that will make the most impact in terms of injury/ fatality rates, thus projects that target
bigger populations are of greater priority and are allocated more funds. Nevertheless,
there are initiatives to impact rural roads in addition to seat belt use and preventing
impaired driving. One such project is the First There, First Care: Bystander Care for the
Injured Campaign. This campaign addresses the gap between distance and response time
to the site of the crash and the medical facility where victims will receive emergency
care. It is designed to educate trainers in instructing people in rural communities to
provide care if they witness an accident. Many projects have also focused on driver
behavior and attitudes and how this influences accidents, road design ( number of lanes
and their impact), crash models, and intersection safety in rural roads, among many
others. Other initiatives include:
• Partners for Rural Traffic Safety Action Kit Guide – a publication designed to
educate rural community leaders on how to conduct a seatbelt use campaign,
measure its success, etc. This is a joint initiative between the National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA) and National Rural Health Association
( NRHA) for seatbelt campaigns in rural areas.
• The Rural Transportation Initiative- a project formulated to ensure that rural areas
and small communities share in the mobility, economic, and social benefits that
many USDOT programs provide. This project aims to enhance the capacity of
rural America to play a more integral role in the planning and decision- making
that shape transportation systems. In addition to this, it provides an array of
technical assistance and grant programs to enable communities to plan, develop
and improve air, surface, and water transportation infrastructure. One of the goals
of this program is to reduce the human and material costs that are unintended
consequences of the operation of the transportation systems in rural areas by
improving safety.
8
• Rural Enhancement of Access and Care for Trauma ( REACT) project- This
project was designed as an intervention to enhance timely access to trauma care
and improve emergency medical care delivered by rural health personnel.
• Crash Models for Rural Intersections: Four- Lane by Two- Lane Stop- Controlled
and Two- Lane by Two- Lane Signalized- the aim of this study was to develop three
crash models relating to three types of rural intersections ( three- legged
intersections with major four- lane roads and minor roads that are stop- controlled,
four- legged intersections with major four- lane roads and minor two- lane roads
that are stop- controlled, and signalized intersections with both major and minor
two- lane roads).
• Safety Applications of Intelligent Transportation Systems ( ITS) in Rural Areas:
this project involved the analysis of existing and planned technology applications
designed to improve safety in rural areas.
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California Rural Road Initiatives
Once federal funds are allocated to the state, the Office of Traffic Safety is responsible
for developing a Highway Safety Plan ( HSP) in order to reduce traffic collisions and
deaths, injuries, and property damage resulting from collisions. The HSP serves as
California’s application for federal funds available to states under the Transportation
Equity Act for the 21st Century ( TEA- 21- for more on this please see Appendix B).
Money is allocated to different programmatic areas which consist of: occupant protection,
pedestrian and bicycle safety, police traffic services, alcohol and other drugs, community-based
organizations program, emergency medical services, roadway safety, safe
communities, and traffic records. Grants are awarded for projects designed to address
federally designated traffic safety priority areas within the program areas mentioned. ( See
Appendix for a look at the number of grants by county.)
Caltrans handles and funds research in most rural safety issues via the Western
Transportation Institute ( WTI), which is located in Montana State University. Caltrans is
part of a joint California- Oregon collaboration - California- Oregon Advanced
Transportation Systems ( COATS) Showcase Projects - which is a multi- year, rurally-focused
research project aimed at providing information that may improve the
performance of current intelligent transportation systems ( ITS) elements, and provide
data to substantiate, maintain, or direct future deployment of ITS in northern California
and southern Oregon ( See figure 1). Showcase evaluations are done by WTI at Montana
State University. Some of the evaluations currently active are:
- Operational Impacts of Weather and Lane Closures on Rural Highways,
- Development of Weather Severity Index,
- ITS Maintenance Evaluation,
- Public Safety and Communications, and
- Communications Improvements for Rural Field Devices
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Caltrans also has several specific projects to handle rural transportation, some of which
may intersect with safety: snowplow & snow blower guidance and automation work
( PATH & AHMCT), curve over speed dynamic warnings ( Traffic Ops), rural TMC
( Traffic Ops -- addressing safety only peripherally), and an integrated work zone efficacy
project ( addressing the effectiveness of VMS signs well in advance of WZ's).
Figure 1. COATS Study Area Boundaries
( Source: http:// www. coe. montana. edu/ wti/ wwwshare/ COATS/ Intro/ FigES- 01. htm)
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In terms of rural road traffic safety applications for the agricultural population, some of
the Caltrans projects are:
- The Agriculture Industry Transportation Services ( AITS) Pilot Project: The
goal of this project is implement efficient and safe transportation services for
seasonal, residential farm workers in order to lessen the number of injuries
and fatalities sustained by farm workers while traveling to/ from agricultural
work sites within Fresno, Kern, Kings, and Tulare Counties in the Central
Valley. ( Implementation is scheduled to end on 6/ 30/ 04.)
- The Traffic Safety Education Program ( TSEP): This program is intended to
deliver a broad driver/ traffic safety educational program for the state’s
agriculture industry, including farm workers and their families, farm labor
contractors, and growers in the San Joaquin Valley.
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Research at Other Universities
As fatalities on rural roads escalate, more attention is being directed towards efforts to
resolve this issue and investigate underlying problems. Universities and traffic safety
centers have been and are focusing some of their research on solutions that will help
reduce the number of fatalities that occur on rural roads by addressing different areas
such as road design, driver behavior, etc. The following is a summary of what other
university traffic safety centers have done in the past and/ or are currently working on:
Montana State University: Western Transportation Institute
This university center focuses on rural transportation issues and is actually affiliated with
a joint project between the states of California and Oregon to perform research on rural
road issues ( See section on California Rural Road Initiatives for more information). Other
projects currently active and/ or recently completed are:
1. Sacramento River Canyon Curve Warning Systems: This project evaluated
five various dynamic curve warning systems installed for advanced
notification to motorists of alignment changes and speed advisories in the
Sacramento River Canyon.
2. Program for Advanced Rural Transportation Technology ( PARTT): This
project investigates the need for rural transportation technology and helps
determine applicability of advanced transportation technologies presently
under development in rural settings.
3. California Vehicle- Highway Cooperative Systems: Rural Fleet Application
Case Study: The goal of this study is to develop a blueprint for the building of
a prototype rural Vehicle- Highway Cooperative System in northern
California.
4. Impact of Personal Digital Assistants in Emergency Medical Services
Providers’ Response to Motor Vehicle Crashes: The purpose of this project is
to help determine the impact of personal digital assistants on EMS response
to, and treatment of, injured motor vehicle crash victims.
5. Assessing Needs and Identifying Opportunities for ITS Applications in
California National Parks: As indicated in the project title, the goal of this
project is to identify potential ITS market packages and transportation needs
for California national parks, using stakeholder outreach and visitor surveys at
two case study locations: Golden Gate National Recreation Area and Sequoia
and Kings Canyon National Parks.
6. Assess Caltrans Road Weather Information System ( RWIS) Devices and
Related Sensors: Caltrans has identified the need to evaluate the road weather
information systems ( RWIS) that have been installed in the state. This project
will help Caltrans in determining how to improve its RWIS and to move
towards a statewide linked network
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Institute Texas A& M University: Texas Transportation Institute ( TTI)
Due to the rural nature of the state of Texas ( over 62 percent of Texas highways are rural
two- lane roads), TTI has many research projects trying to address accidents and other
transportation problems in rural roads. Some of the more prominent ones are:
1. Detection Control System ( D- CS) ( 2003): This system was developed to
improve the safety at high- speed rural intersections by reducing red- light
violations and sudden stops by up to 70 percent. The idea behind this system is to
prevent the light changing from yellow to red when vehicles are approaching the
intersection.
2. Design Criteria for Improved Two- Lane Section Super 2 ( 2002): This project
focused on design criteria for Super 2 lanes which allow motorists to safely and
easily pass slower vehicles, improving traffic flow at a much lower cost than a
traditional expansion of four lanes. Researchers reviewed three critical elements
in this project: passing lane length and spacing, lane and shoulder requirements,
and signing and marking strategies.
3. ITS Applications for Truck Traffic in Rural Areas ( 2001): This project is
unique in that it is the first one targeted at truck traffic in rural areas. Through the
use of a vehicle classifier connected to a personal computer, researchers
developed a system that senses when a truck is approaching an intersection and
relays detection to the computer. The computer then sends a message to the
signal controller to take appropriate action, such as delaying a light change from
green to red to give the truck time to clear the intersection safely.
4. Accident Mitigation Guide for Congested Rural Two- Lane Highways ( 2000):
This project investigated lower- cost measures for improving safety and operations
in rural two- lane highways; and provided strategies for accident prevention and
reduction of rural congestion through a guide. The guide is intended to be
utilized by transportation professionals to help them identify and select
appropriate countermeasures for a designated site. It offers description, analysis,
and effectiveness of countermeasures that could be used on the roadway, along
the roadside, at an intersection, or separate from the road environment ( i. e. public
information/ educational campaigns).
5. Use of Innovative Traffic Control Devices to Improve Safety at Short- Term
Rural Work Zones ( 2000): In this project, researchers examined countermeasures
that would increase driver awareness of the upcoming work zone, make workers
more visible, or slow down traffic.
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University of Minnesota: Intelligent Transportation Systems Institute
One of the research applications the University of Minnesota Intelligent Transportation
System Institute focuses on is rural safety and within this area, there are many projects
aimed at improving and addressing rural road conditions and safety. The following is a
brief summary of some of the projects that are active:
1. Real- time Collision Warning and Avoidance at Intersections: This project aims
to develop a system that can detect and prevent potential collisions in real time
using video cameras and algorithmic techniques.
2. Deer Avoidance Research: Use of Motion Detector Flashing Light: This project
evaluates the potential impact of new technology ( motion detection information
relative to the presence of deer in and around major highways) on driver behavior.
3. Intersection Decision Support ( IDS)*: The state of Minnesota is a partner with
California and Virginia in a pooled consortium, the focus of which is the
improvement of safety at intersections. This project is aimed at improving safety
and mobility on rural intersections with a system that is deployable, easily
maintained and cost effective. Project also includes development of surveillance
technology and collision predictive algorithms applicable to all intersection types.
Note: UCB Traffic Safety Center is involved in urban IDS.
4. Accident Analysis for Low- volume Roads: This project involves the creation of a
database to provide engineers with information regarding accidents at
intersections to help them better determine impact of signage and seasonal
variation along with other aspects that affect decisions made relative to
intersections where frequent collisions take place.
5. Reducing Crashes at Controlled Rural Intersections: This project aims to look
for solutions to safety- related issues present at rural intersections.
6. Eliminating Driver Blind Spots at Rural Intersections: This study seeks to
determine the relationship between the size of forward field of view blind spots,
the approach speeds of the two vehicles that could potentially collide at the
intersection, and to gain a better insight of how changes in the two vehicle
velocities may lengthen, shorten, or eliminate the blind spot as a function of these
two approach speeds.
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University of Iowa: Center for Transportation Research and Education
The University of Iowa Center for Transportation Research and Education has worked on
several rural road related projects in the past, but currently most of their focus has shifted
somewhat to cover research in the areas of road design/ structure, materials, and traffic
data collection. Their most recent rural road research project was done in 2001. Past
rural road research projects have focused on analysis of shoulder surfacing criteria, safety
impacts of increasing peed limit on rural interstates in Iowa, traffic management
strategies for merge areas in rural interstate work zones, and transportation of rural elders
and access to health care.
University of Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Center for Transportation Studies:
This university is currently working on “ The Effect of Segment Characteristics on the
Severity of Head- On Crashes on Two- Lane Rural Highway” and has worked on other
rural road issues such as: rural pedestrian crash rate: alternative measures of exposure;
and finding strategies to improve pedestrian safety in rural areas and transit training for
urban and rural areas.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Mr. Jack Champlin from the NHTSA Region IX and Mr.
James Mesener from UC Berkeley PATH for providing information and help during this
report.
http:// www. fhwa. dot. gov/ hep10/ state/ ca. pdf
http:// www. transact. org/ ca/ ped_ safety_ 2002_ finalreport. htm
http:// www. ers. usda. gov/ publications/ aib753/ aib753fm. pdf
RURAL DEFINITION
In practice, the U. S. Department of Transportation defines rural in two ways: first, for
highway functional classification and outdoor advertising regulations, rural is considered
anything outside of an area with a population of 5,000; second, for planning purposes,
rural is considered to be areas outside of metropolitan areas 50,000 or greater in
population. This definition leaves a lot of room for significant differences within these
categories.
http:// www. fhwa. dot. gov/ planning/ rural/ planningfortrans/ 2ourrts. html
REFERENCES
http:// www. nhtsa. gov
http:// www. tfhrc. gov/ safety/ 98133/ foreword/ foreword. html
http:// ntl. bts. gov/ DOCS/ RURALINIT. html
http:// www. fhwa. dot. gov/ tea21/ index. htm
http:// www- nrd. nhtsa. dot. gov/ pdf/ nrd- 30/ NCSA/ TSF2001/ 2001rural. pdf
http:// www. fhwa. dot. gov/ tfhrc/ safety/ pubs/ 99128/ intro. htm
http:// www. cirsinc. org/ rcr/ rushhour. html
http:// www. iinc. org/ cons_ issues/ auto/ speed. html
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APPENDIX
Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century and Funding Projections for
California: ( source: http:// www. ots. ca. gov/ tea21/ what_ is_ tea. asp)
What is TEA- 21, and How Does It Work?
Traffic safety funding for all states is allocated by formula within multiple sections under
the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century, ( more commonly known as TEA- 21),
and administered through the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA).
Once California receives its allocation, the California Office of Traffic Safety acts as a
pass- through agency granting the funds to state and local agencies for traffic safety
programs in priority areas including Occupant Protection, Driving Under the Influence
( DUI), Community Based Organization outreach, Emergency Medical Services, Police
Traffic Services, and Traffic Records, to name a few.
Under TEA- 21, California has received anywhere from $ 30 million to $ 55 million
annually in basic and incentive funding because of its population size, excellent traffic
safety laws, high belt use rates and low collision rates in various categories.
The table below outlines OTS' estimated fund sources for 2003, which clearly shows that
incentive funding, comprises a sizeable portion of the California allocation.
Funding Projections for California
FFY 2003
Fund Source Fund Title FFY 2003 ( TEA- 21)
402 Basic Highway Safety Program ( based on
population and roadway miles) $ 15,092,000
405 Occupant Protection Incentive Grants $ 2,010,000
410 Alcohol- Impaired Driving ( Program funding
ends in FFY 2002)
157 Safety Incentive Grants for Use of Seatbelts $ 15,552,900
163 .08 BAC Illegal Per Se Law ( Incentive) $ 11,000,000
2003 ( b) Child Passenger Protection Education $ 730,829
Totals ( Projected Estimates) $ 49,385,729