MTI Report 06- 04
Mineta
Transportation
Institute
Created by
Congress in 1991
Video Transit Training for
Older Travelers:
A Case Study of the
Rossmoor Senior Adult
Community, California
a publication of the
Mineta Transportation Institute
College of Business
San José State University
San José, CA 95192- 0219
Created by Congress in 1991
MTI REPORT 06- 04
VIDEO TRANSIT TRAINING FOR OLDER TRAVELERS:
A CASE STUDY OF THE ROSSMOOR SENIOR ADULT
COMMUNITY, CALIFORNIA
The transit- use video referred to in this publication is available online at:
www. path. berkeley. edu/ path_ downloads/ Video/ IMR/ Rossmoor- Final. mpg
March 2007
Susan A. Shaheen, Ph. D
Caroline J. Rodier, Ph. D.
TECHNICAL REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE
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7. Authors 8. Performing Organization Report No.
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Mineta Transportation Institute
College of Business
San José State University
San José, CA 95192- 0219
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11. Contract or Grant No.
65W136
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
14. Sponsoring Agency Code
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$ 15.00
Form DOT F 1700.7 ( 8- 72)
California Department of
Transportation
Sacramento, CA 95815
U. S. Department of Transportation
Research and Innovative Technology
Administration
400 7th Street, SW
Washington, DC 20590- 0001
March 2007
Susan A. Shaheen, Ph. D. and Caroline J. Rodier, Ph. D. MTI 06- 04
In this study, the authors applied principles of social learning and marketing to develop a transit training video for
residents of the Rossmoor senior adult community in California. The video features familiar community members
successfully navigating specific concerns and problems related to transit use in accessing key community
destinations ( shopping, health care, and the nearest Bay Area Rapid Transit district station). To evaluate the
effectiveness of the video, residents were recruited to complete questionnaires before and after viewing it. Video
messages aimed to educate viewers on how to obtain transit information, costs, and payment generated a
significant and positive attitudinal change. However, respondents reported that the video did not adequately
address the difficulties associated with reading schedules and climbing stairs at transit stations. Survey results also
indicate a significant and positive change in respondents’ future use of a broader range of Internet- related
information sources. The results also reveal a significant and positive change among respondents in using transit
services to the specific destinations presented in the video. However, results are mixed on whether participants
might take transit to general destinations not explicitly presented in the video.
Focus groups; Paratransit
services; Senior citizens;
Transit riders; Travel
behavior
66
FHWA/ CA/ OR- 2006/ 24
Video Transit Training for Older Travelers: A Case Study of the
Rossmoor Senior Adult Community, California
Final Report
by Mineta Transportation Institute
All rights reserved
To order this publication, please contact the following:
Mineta Transportation Institute
College of Business
San José State University
San José, CA 95192- 0219
Tel ( 408) 924- 7560
Fax ( 408) 924- 7565
E- mail: mti@ mti. sjsu. edu
http:// transweb. sjsu. edu
Copyright © 2007
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2006935923
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Mineta Transportation Institute and the California
Department of Transportation for funding this research. In particular, we would like to thank
Research Director Trixie Johnson of the Mineta Institute for her continued support of research
on issues related to older mobility. We would also like to thank Gretchen Hansen,
transportation coordinator of the Rossmoor senior adult community, as well as community
residents who participated in focus groups, the survey, and video production. We also thank
Jay Sullivan of California PATH for his invaluable work on the video production. The
following California PATH staff and students also deserve special credit for their assistance
with the project: Kamill Wipyewski, J. Darius Roberts, Jade Benjamin- Chung, Denise Allen,
and Charlene Kemmerer. The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors, who are
responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the data presented herein.
Thanks are also offered to MTI staff, including Research and Publications Assistant Sonya
Carter- Cardenas, Webmaster Barney Murray, and Graphic Artist Shun Nelson. Editing and
publication services were provided by Catherine Frazier and Project Solutions Network, Inc.
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i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
INTRODUCTION 3
LITERATURE REVIEW 5
Demography and Mobility of Older Adults 5
Transit Barriers and Preferences 6
Applications of Social Learning and Marketing Theory 7
ROSSMOOR SENIOR ADULT COMMUNITY 9
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH 11
FOCUS GROUP FINDINGS 13
SURVEY RESULTS 17
Demographics 17
Tripmaking and Auto Use 17
Prior and Current Transit Use 18
Potential Transit Barriers and Improvements 18
Transit- Training- Video Response 20
CONCLUSIONS 23
APPENDIX A: FOCUS GROUP PROTOCOL 25
APPENDIX B: TRANSPORTATION QUESTIONNAIRE 31
APPENDIX C: VIDEO SURVEY— BEFORE AND AFTER 39
ENDNOTES 55
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 59
BIBLIOGRAPHY 61
ii Table of Contents
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS 63
PEER REVIEW 65
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iii
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Change in Respondents’ Stated Use Before and After Viewing Video 22
2. Change in Sources Used for Transit Information Before and After Viewing Video 22
iv List of Figures
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v
LIST OF TABLES
1. Response to Possible Barriers and Transit Improvements ( n= 105) 19
2. Sources Used to Find Transit Information ( n= 105) 19
vi List of Tables
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1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The United States faces the imminent challenge of providing transportation services to a new
and vastly larger population of older travelers. There are currently about 34 million senior
citizens, and this population is expected to more than double by the year 2030, comprising
20 percent of the nation’s population. 1 The next generation of older travelers, baby boomers
aged 45 to 64, are most likely to live in the suburbs ( 52 percent) and less likely to live in
urban ( 27 percent) or rural ( 21 percent) areas. 2 It is well known that activity destinations are
less likely to be accessible by transit in suburban areas than urban ones because of differences
in intensity of land use. However, in both urban and suburban environments older people
travel most frequently by auto ( 74 percent in urban areas and 91 percent in the suburbs) and
much less frequently by transit ( 8 percent in urban areas and less than 1 percent in the
suburbs). 3 Cognitive and physical limitations associated with aging can lead to declines in
driving performance and safety, particularly after the age of 75. Moreover, driving cessation
and reductions in out- of- home activities are significantly related to serious health problems,
including heart disease, strokes, fractures, and cognitive impairments. 4
In response to driving difficulties, older travelers might be expected to turn to transit;
however, many cannot for the simple reason that transit services are not available in their
neighborhoods. 5 Nevertheless, there is evidence that a significant number of older travelers
would not use transit even if services were improved. 6 For many older individuals, using
transit is a new or unfamiliar experience that presents numerous physical and cognitive
challenges. 7 As a result, older adults may require additional instruction and information on
how to use transit. Both national and state studies on senior transit use have recommended the
development of “ mobility planning and training programs” 8 and “ education and outreach
programs” 9 to address the transit- related information needs of older travelers.
In this study, the principles of social learning and marketing are applied to develop a transit
training video for residents of the Rossmoor senior adult community in Walnut Creek ( East
San Francisco Bay Area, California). 10 The video features familiar community members
successfully navigating specific concerns and problems, as identified in the literature review
and focus groups, related to available transit to key community destinations. Residents were
recruited to complete surveys before and after viewing the video. The results of surveys
completed before reviewing the video provide some insight into respondents’ travel- related
experiences, preferences, and constraints:
• Approximately 90 percent use autos as their primary travel mode, are able to drive, and
have a vehicle available for their household’s use; however, these proportions tend to
decline with respondents’ age.
• Before moving to Rossmoor, about 60 percent had lived in a community where they used
transit with some regularity; this proportion tends to increase with respondents’ age.
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• Approximately 13 percent use transit as their primary travel mode, and 36 percent use it
two or more times a week.
• Most participants indicated that transit travel time, lack of door- to- door service, and
transfers are significant barriers to transit use; as a result, the most popular improvements
are more frequent service, better connections, and more direct routes.
In addition, comparisons were made of the results of the surveys completed before and after
viewing the video to explore the video intervention’s effectiveness for promoting transit use
among older travelers:
• The video messages that educated viewers about how to obtain information on transit
schedules, costs, and payment generated a significant and positive attitudinal change;
however, those that addressed difficulties with reading schedules and climbing stairs did
not, perhaps because these tasks require a level of physical ability that cannot be fully
addressed by the video.
• After viewing the video, respondents indicated a significant and positive change in transit
use to the specific destinations portrayed in the video; however, results are mixed for
transit travel to more general destinations that are not explicitly portrayed in the video.
• The video also educated viewers about a broader range of information sources, such as the
Internet and 511. org ( a free phone and Web service that consolidates area transportation
information). After viewing the video, respondents indicated a significant and positive
change in their future stated use of these information sources.
Future research is recommended to examine changes in actual transit use after viewing the
video, for example, by employing control groups and longitudinal analyses, and to compare
the relative effectiveness, in cost and behavioral change, for example, of the transit training
video to other social learning and marketing interventions.
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3
INTRODUCTION
The United States faces the imminent challenge of providing transportation services to a new
and vastly larger population of older travelers. There are currently about 34 million senior
citizens, and this population is expected to more than double by the year 2030, comprising
20 percent of the nation’s population. 1 The next generation of older travelers, baby boomers
aged 45 to 64, are most likely to live in the suburbs ( 52 percent) and less likely to live in
urban ( 27 percent) or rural ( 21 percent) areas. 2 It is well known that activity destinations are
less likely to be accessible by transit in suburban areas than urban ones because of differences
in intensity of land use. However, in both urban and suburban environments older people
travel most frequently by auto ( 74 percent in urban areas and 91 percent in the suburbs) and
much less frequently by transit ( 8 percent in urban areas and less than 1 percent in the
suburbs). 3 Cognitive and physical limitations associated with aging can lead to declines in
driving performance and safety, particularly after the age of 75. Moreover, driving cessation
and reductions in out- of- home activities are significantly related to serious health problems,
including heart disease, strokes, fractures, and cognitive impairments. 4
In response to driving difficulties, older travelers might be expected to turn to transit;
however, many cannot for the simple reason that transit services are not available in their
neighborhoods. 5 Nevertheless, there is evidence that a significant number of older travelers
would not use transit even if services were improved. 6 For many older individuals, using
transit is a new or unfamiliar experience that presents numerous physical and cognitive
challenges. 7 As a result, older adults may require additional instruction and information on
how to use transit. Both national and state studies on senior transit use have recommended the
development of “ mobility planning and training programs” 8 and “ education and outreach
programs” 9 to address the transit- related information needs of older travelers.
In this study, the principles of social learning and marketing are applied to develop a transit
training video for residents of the Rossmoor senior adult community in Walnut Creek ( East
San Francisco Bay Area). 10 This location was selected as the number of senior communities is
on the rise in California, and residents in these locations may have distinct travel patterns and
needs. Programs based on social learning and marketing theory have been used recently in
Australia, Seattle, and Portland to reduce auto travel and encourage transit, walking, and
cycling travel. Preliminary results suggest that these programs have changed travel behavior
and are very cost effective.
This report begins with a literature review on the demography and mobility of older adults,
transit barriers and preferences, and relevant social learning and marketing theory
applications. Second, the authors review the study methodology. Next, exploratory focus
group findings are presented, capturing residents’ experiences and transit perceptions. Third,
the authors review the survey results and discuss the video’s effectiveness. Finally, conclusions
are provided.
4 Introduction
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5
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this section, the authors review three key areas of literature relevant to this study:
demography and mobility of older adults, transit barriers and perceptions, and social
marketing and learning applications.
DEMOGRAPHY AND MOBILITY OF OLDER ADULTS
Numerous sources document the demographic trends driving the growing challenge of
providing transportation services to a new and larger generation of older travelers. 11 In the
United States, there are approximately 34 million senior citizens at present, and this
population is expected to more than double by the year 2030, comprising 20 percent of the
nation’s population. 12 In California, 3.5 million people are currently over the age of 65; this
constitutes 12 percent of the total state population. 13 By the year 2040, the senior population
is expected to grow by 172 percent ( from 2000), and most of this growth is expected to occur
in the next 20 years. 14
Although auto use is lower in urban areas than in suburban and rural ones, it is still the most
commonly used travel mode of seniors. According to an analysis of the 1995 National Personal
Transportation Survey ( NPTS), driving a car was the mode of choice for 53 percent of all trips
made by older people in urban areas, 70 percent in suburban areas, and 66 percent in rural
areas. The second most common mode for seniors was as a passenger in an auto: 21 percent in
urban and suburban environments and 25 percent in the rural environment. 15 In total, older
individuals used the car for 74 percent of all trips in the city and 91 percent of total trips in
the suburbs and countryside. Public transit constituted only 8.2 percent of all senior trips in
urban areas and less than 1 percent in suburban and rural areas. 16
Until the age of 85, private- car travel accounts for nearly 90 percent of all trips. In the 85- and-older
cohort, travel by private car decreases by about 10 percent, and walk and taxi modal
shares increase. 17 Nevertheless, across successive cohorts, there is an increasing shift from
driving a private car to becoming a passenger in an auto. 18
Older individuals often find certain driving situations exceptionally challenging. After the age
of 75, driving performance begins to decline because of increased stimulus- reaction time,
declines in visual cognitive performance, and medication effects. 19 Car crash statistics indicate
that the fatality rate of seniors increases between the ages of 55 and 70, and this increase occurs
exponentially after the age of 65.20 McKnight identifies specific mental processes that are
exceptionally difficult for senior citizens while driving: attention sharing, judging gaps in
traffic, conducting visual searches, navigation, and motor control. 21 Attention sharing is
frequently a required skill for making left- hand turns because the driver must watch multiple
events at once. 22 A survey of older travelers in San Diego, California, also found that the
greatest perceived driving challenges involved making left- hand turns and managing yield
6 Literature Review
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situations. 23 Motor control deficiencies involve events like misapplications of the accelerator
or wide swings around corners. 24
As a result of physical, cognitive, and financial challenges, driving cessation— either forced or
voluntary— is inevitable for older travelers who live long enough. Aside from cessation caused
by a discrete event such as a crash or an illness, there also appears to be a process of cessation.
Focus groups, conducted in Florida, Maine, and Maryland, suggest that older drivers begin the
cessation process by restricting trip variety and increasing trip chaining. 25 Recreational trips,
which are also the types of trips that older travelers are likely to value most highly, are
generally the first trip types to be eliminated. 26 Personal driving is typically replaced by
passenger trips that are provided by a family member or friend. Many seniors appear to dislike
the feelings of dependence that accompany increases in these trips. 27
Other research that examines the consequences of driving cessation has focused on the health
changes people experience once they stop driving. A core study in this area by Marottoli et al.
reviews past research and concludes that after adjusting for socio- demographic and
health- related factors, driving cessation is still associated with a further decrease in
out- of- home activities. 28 The direct health effects of driver cessation are associated with a more
inactive lifestyle, which increases the risk of heart disease, stroke, and fractures. 29 More
recently, a decrease in out- of- home activities has been linked to declines in cognitive abilities
as well. 30
TRANSIT BARRIERS AND PREFERENCES
A number of studies in recent years have attempted to explore the reasons why older travelers
do not take transit, even if it is available to them. 31 In general, the study results suggest a
number of significant concerns:
• Lack of direct service to local destinations
• Limited transit service hours during off- peak periods and on weekends
• Multiple transit connections
• Transit service that is not prompt or reliable
• Physical discomfort related to climbing stairs, paying fares, walking to and standing at
stops, and standing during bus rides
• Fear of crime, including while waiting for buses after dark, using park- and- ride lots, and
riding on buses after dark
• Difficulty understanding how to use transit
Many of these studies have also recommended strategies to encourage transit use among older
individuals. It appears that while all transit users respond favorably to service improvements,
seniors may place more value on enhancements to their physical and psychological comfort,
safety, and access to local destinations. 32 Recommendations have been made to improve
information access by making maps and schedules available at bus stops and improving
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Literature Review 7
general and real- time telephone information. 33 In addition, service limitations may be
addressed through shared- ride, demand- responsive services. 34 Friendly and patient transit
drivers may make the transit experience for older riders more pleasant and comfortable. 35
Finally, Burkhardt et al. note that older travelers may be less familiar with transit and may
have physical and cognitive challenges that make it more difficult to use. As a result, older
travelers may need a higher level of support ( e. g., information and assistance) to increase their
transit use. 36 Burkhardt et al. recommend “ developing mobility planning and training
programs to help older persons make a transition from driving to public modes of travel.” 37 A
recent report sponsored by the California Department of Transportation on the use of public
transit by nontraditional riders also recommended the development of “ senior education and
outreach programs.” 38
APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL LEARNING AND MARKETING THEORY
Social learning theory emphasizes a continuous interaction among behavior, personal factors,
and environmental determinants and bridges the gap between cognitively oriented, rational
decision- making models and behavioral theory. The relative influence of each factor is different
for various settings and behaviors. The environment can influence behavior by making it easier
for individuals to act. A distinguishing feature of learning theory is that “ symbolic, vicarious
and self- regulatory processes assume a prominent role.” 39 For instance, an individual might
observe another person’s behavior, reproduce it, and in replicating it, reinforce the modeled
behavior.
Kotler et al. define social marketing theory as “ the use of marketing principles and techniques
to influence a target audience to voluntarily accept, reject, modify, or abandon a behavior for
the benefit of individuals, groups, or society as a whole.” 40 Social marketing builds upon and
employs several social learning theory principles. For instance, media ( e. g., modeling videos
and articles) can be used to stimulate learning by targeted groups, and modeling can help
develop an individual’s sense that he or she can perform a new behavior. Similarly to social
learning theory, social marketing supports a gradual or dynamic approach to behavioral
adoption of a new product, concept, or service. Individuals move through definable stages in
adopting a new product. 41 There are four stages in Andreasen’s social marketing behavioral
adoption process: ( 1) precontemplation, ( 2) contemplation, ( 3) action, and ( 4) maintenance. 42
In the field of transportation, there have been a number of applications that test aspects of
social learning and social marketing theories. One study tested the effect of different types of
information, such as storytelling and fact sheets, on knowledge and attitudes related to
carpooling. 43 At five employment sites ( 645 employees), the “ story- based intervention was
compared to a fact- sheet- based intervention and to a control.” 44 The results indicated that
participants who received the information, regardless of its type, “ felt more comfortable with
their carpool knowledge and felt that they had adequate knowledge to guide them in
discussions and problem solving” and “ the more interesting text was associated with greater
8 Literature Review
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perceived knowledge, greater confidence and comfort with knowledge, and increased
willingness to try carpooling.” 45
Another study explored the effect of three interventions ( information, task assignment and
control, and feedback) on the attitudes, social norms, and behavior of mail- van drivers in a
Netherlands postal district. 46 The objective of the interventions was to change driving
behavior to reduce energy consumption. A field experiment was conducted to test the
effectiveness of the interventions. The information intervention included an instructional film
and a booklet. The task assignment and control intervention included additional information,
commitment, and follow- up with respect to driving behavior and energy consumption. The
feedback intervention included weekly information on the change in energy consumption by
the drivers. The study indicated that “ attitudes, social norms, and reported behavior changed,
and energy savings of more than 7 percent were achieved compared with a control group.” 47
Another study employed modeling techniques in a television campaign to promote gasoline
conservation behaviors in three New South Wales ( Australia) cities. 48 The program was
implemented in two cities for four weeks, and the third city was the control. Before- and- after
surveys were administered to about 400 randomly selected respondents in each of the two
cities. The campaign used two different themes. The first, saving money, tested the
effectiveness of economic incentives. The second, good citizenship, tested the effect of social
norms on behavior. “ The results showed that the pro- petrol conservation films, regardless of
theme ( saving money or good citizenship), had small but statistically significant effects on
most measures of attitudes and beliefs, intention to save petrol in the future, and self- reported
conservation behavior.” 49
Shaheen developed several informational media: a brochure, a video, and a trial clinic to
introduce a new car sharing service, and found that willingness to use the service was
influenced by the amount and type of exposure. 50 Informational media were used to teach
targeted groups, and behavioral modeling ( e. g., the video and clinic) was used to develop
participants’ confidence in adopting new behaviors. Participants who only read the brochure
lost interest over time, while a large majority of those who read the brochure, watched the
video, and participated in the clinic stated that they would use the carsharing service.
More recently, programs like TravelSmart in Australia, Seattle, and Portland draw on the
social learning concept of self- efficacy by emphasizing personal involvement to change
behavior. The hypothesis is that greater participant engagement or interaction produces a
stronger motivation to change behavior. For example, children are given decals for bicycles and
lunch boxes to encourage awareness of and changes in travel behavior. To encourage transit
use, program participants have been offered system experience and motivation ( or promised
rewards). Preliminary results of these pilot programs suggest that they have changed travel
behavior and that the interventions can be very cost effective.
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9
ROSSMOOR SENIOR ADULT COMMUNITY
The Rossmoor senior adult community was founded in 1963. It is located in suburban Contra
Costa County near the City of Walnut Creek, California. As of 2005, the community had a
population of 9,233 with 6,700 rental units on 2,200 acres of land. The types of residences
included in this community are cooperatives, condominiums, and single- family developments.
To be eligible to live in the community, at least one household member must be 55 years of
age or older. Residents’ income tends to be higher than the average for their age cohort.
Community facilities include three clubhouses, a medical center, a gymnasium, and pools. The
community also supports a newspaper and a television broadcasting channel. Most residents in
the community have access to a personal vehicle. In addition, residents can access the
Rossmoor bus ( fixed- route and dial- a- bus, after- hours services) within Rossmoor and to
connect to the County Connection bus system51 that takes travelers to locations outside of
Rossmoor including downtown Walnut Creek and the local Bay Area Rapid Transit ( BART)
district rail transit station.
10 Rossmoor Senior Adult Community
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11
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
Researchers began the study with two exploratory focus groups with older individuals from
the Rossmoor community in October 2005. The focus groups were conducted to explore
participants’ use, experience, and perceptions of transit ( or self- efficacy). In addition, the
groups explored factors influencing transit- related self- efficacy, including physical and
cognitive challenges, transit familiarity, and peer transit perceptions. Finally, participants
were asked to respond to and suggest alternative interventions that might address factors that
negatively influence transit- related self- efficacy.
Based on the literature and focus groups, the authors developed an informational transit
training video specific to Rossmoor ( vs. a more general transit video). The video features older
individuals from the community who are relatively well- known and liked. It shows how these
residents successfully navigate specific concerns and problems related to traveling by available
transit methods to key destinations ( downtown Walnut Creek, John Muir Medical Center, and
the nearest BART station).
Researchers conducted three video showings during the months of June and July 2006, in
which survey instruments were distributed before and after participants watched the video.
The surveys assessed respondents’ experience, use, and perceptions of transit before and after
seeing the video. Participants were recruited from the community by distributing flyers
announcing the showing and a gift certificate lottery incentive. One hundred and twenty- nine
surveys were completed.
The instruments used for the focus groups and in the surveys are included as Appendices A, B,
and C.
12 Methodological Approach
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13
FOCUS GROUP FINDINGS
At the start of the focus groups, researchers administered an intake questionnaire to identify
demographic attributes of respondents. Participants in the two focus groups included 6 men
and 16 women. Most are between the ages of 65 and 85; are married; have a college education;
and use a mobile phone, the Internet, e- mail, or a combination of the three. The median
income of the participants is $ 50,000 a year.
The focus group moderator asked participants to share their travel experiences. Prior to
moving to Rossmoor, nine participants traveled primarily by auto; eight traveled largely by
auto but used transit to commute to work; and three lived in large cities ( New York and San
Francisco) and almost solely traveled by transit. Since moving to the Rossmoor community,
most travel primarily by auto and only use BART to go to San Francisco. Four participants
noted that they do not use transit much, but they do “ walk a lot.” However, most reported
that they are “ highly confident” taking transit during the day; three conveyed medium
confidence, and one indicated a low confidence level. Most stated that they are less comfortable
taking transit at night unless traveling in a group.
Many of the transit attributes favored by participants are common to all travelers and not just
older adults, including fast travel times, low travel costs, safety, and comfort. More
specifically, focus group participants identified the following positive attributes of transit as
compared to the automobile:
• Avoiding congested and busy roadways
• Faster travel times to certain destinations
• Saving money on parking, bridge tolls, and gas
• Avoiding parking in areas where it is difficult or limited
• Relaxing ( i. e., do not have to drive and can read or work)
• Safer at night
• Better for the environment ( e. g., air quality)
Participants also noted that transit access is very important, particularly when an individual
has no car and cannot drive due to a medical condition or revoked license. The merits of transit
were discussed largely in the context of challenging driving situations, such as congestion, fast
roadway speeds, and impaired night vision.
Focus group participants also described transit attributes that they do not like. One category
of general dissatisfaction is transit service. Most participants had the following criticisms of it:
• Transit frequently does not go when or where they want to go
• Making transit connections is difficult
• Direct service to key destinations is lacking
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Individuals also expressed concerns regarding their physical comfort, safety, and security on
transit, including the following:
• Carrying large or many packages on transit
• Climbing stairs
• The operational status of station elevators
• Lack of comfortable seating on transit and at stations and stops ( e. g., bikes and passengers
who occupy senior seating areas)
• Locked station restrooms
• Limited security on transit and at stations and stops, particularly at night
Focus group participants suggested a number of transit- service- related improvements:
• Improved transit connections ( particularly to BART)
• More frequent service
• Senior fare discounts
• Shorter walking access and egress to transit stops or stations ( door- to- door services)
Participants also suggested improvements that would address their physical concerns
regarding transit use:
• Upcoming stops should be clearly announced by drivers
• Clear transit signs are needed at stops, stations, and different station levels
• Drivers should be more helpful and sensitive to older travelers’ physical limitations
• Seats should be comfortable ( i. e., not hard or slippery)
• Seats should have seat belts
• Equipment is needed for wheelchair access
• Steps should be shallow rather than deep
They made a number of suggestions to improve older travelers’ knowledge and confidence
using transit. These included improved transit information and dissemination:
• Better fare and schedule information ( e. g., “ exact fare so seniors can be prepared,” bus
schedules at stops, and clearly printed bus schedules)
• Personal communication of information ( e. g., staffed information booths at BART and no
automated telephone recordings)
• Information available from a person on the phone or station booth, the Internet
( e. g., “ MapQuest for transit”), and brochures
It is interesting to note that none of the participants had ever heard of 511. org, an Internet
source for transit services. 52 The focus group results indicate that in- person communication is
an important component of effective information access. Participants also had a number of
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Focus Group Findings 15
thoughts about how older travelers might be able to “ practice” using transit and begin to feel
more confident about it. These include the following:
• Transit training classes in which a small group is escorted on transit trips by a trainer
• Taking a transit trip with a friend
• An instructional video on the Rossmoor channel that takes viewers through all the
particular details of trips from Rossmoor to specific destinations ( in this study, researchers
implemented this recommendation)
Based on these focus group findings and the literature review, the instructional video was
selected as the intervention for this study. As discussed previously, focus group participants
suggested this approach and the literature review indicated that it could be effective at
changing behavior. In addition, the Rossmoor community currently runs a transit training
class. The training video was thought to be a cost- effective complement to this training class.
Currently, the Rossmoor community is using this video to recruit and train community
residents.
16 Focus Group Findings
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17
SURVEY RESULTS
Researchers analyzed survey data for 129 respondents who watched the transit training video
in the summer of 2006. This section reviews sample demographics, tripmaking behavior, auto
use, current and prior transit use, perceived response to possible transit barriers and suggested
improvements, and video response.
DEMOGRAPHICS
Survey respondents are predominantly female ( 73.6 percent). Most are between the ages of 75
and 84 years old ( 52 percent), but many are ages 65 to 74 ( 24.8 percent) or 85 years of age or
older ( 20.8 percent). On average, respondents have lived in Rossmoor for 7.5 years and live in
a household with 1.4 members. Nearly equal proportions of respondents are either married or
widowed, and the rest are single or divorced. There is wide variation in the highest education
level completed; the most common degrees are high school ( 36.5 percent), college
( 26.2 percent), and masters ( 19.0 percent). Most participants have a moderate income ( pre- tax
in 2005): 36.6 percent had an income of $ 20,000 to $ 49,999, 19.5 percent of $ 50,000 to
$ 79,999, and 19.5 percent over $ 110,000. Over 50 percent of respondents use a mobile
phone, e- mail, and the Internet, but only 4.1 percent use a personal digital assistant.
TRIPMAKING AND AUTO USE
Respondents actively engage in a variety of nonwork trips, including shopping ( 95.8 percent),
running errands ( 78.3 percent), and social engagements ( 70 percent). Fewer travel to work
( 3.3 percent) or doctors’ offices ( 21.7 percent) at that frequency. Respondents also reported
traveling two or more days per week by personal auto ( 86 percent), walking ( 46.3 percent),
and transit ( 36.3 percent).
Participants are most likely to use an auto as their primary transportation mode ( 89.6 percent),
drive ( 88.5 percent), and have one driver and auto in their household ( 58.3 and 74.6 percent,
respectively). For each successively older cohort, respondents are less likely to use an auto as
their primary mode and have drivers and autos in their households. Overall, the vast majority
of respondents have the means to travel by auto. The number who did not drive is
approximately equal to those who use transit as their primary mode of transportation. A
two- sided chi square test was conducted to detect whether there was a significant association
between using transit as one’s primary transportation mode and current driving status, and a
significant association was found ( p= 0.000). However, the lambda measure for these two
variables was 0.548 ( p= 0.019), indicating only a moderate association between using transit as
one’s primary transportation mode and current driving status.
18 Survey Results
Mineta Transportation Institute
PRIOR AND CURRENT TRANSIT USE
Prior to moving to Rossmoor, 59 percent of respondents stated that they had never lived or
worked in a community in which they used transit with some regularity ( one or more times a
week). However, this percentage decreases over the age of 85; approximately two- thirds of
respondents aged 65 to 84 and over one- half of those 55 to 64 had never lived in a community
in which they regularly used transit.
Approximately 13 percent stated that transit is their primary travel mode. Moreover,
36.3 percent use transit two or more times a week. The Rossmoor bus is used most frequently
( 18.2 percent), followed by BART ( 10.7 percent) and the County Connection bus
( 7.4 percent). In this study, it appears that survey respondents use transit far more frequently
than the national averages for urban and suburban regions, perhaps because of the higher
quality transit services available in their community.
POTENTIAL TRANSIT BARRIERS AND IMPROVEMENTS
Two sets of survey questions explored participants’ response to transit barriers and
improvements to promote transit use. Respondents were first asked to indicate which
improvement( s) to transit would increase their comfort using transit. As shown in Table 1, the
most popular improvements are more frequent schedules ( 50.5 percent), better connections
( 48.6 percent), more direct routes ( 44.8 percent), and easy- to- read schedules ( 38.1 percent).
Less popular improvements include later schedules ( 21.9 percent), better safety measures
( 15.2 percent), and more seating ( 8.6 percent).
Respondents were also asked to indicate whether they strongly agreed, agreed, were neutral,
disagreed, or strongly disagreed ( on a scale of + 2 to – 2) with a number of potential transit
barriers. The weighted averages of the scaled responses are also presented in Table 1.
Interestingly, the weighted scale is negative ( i. e., respondents on average did not agree that
the statement reflected a transit barrier) for all but three transit service attributes: travel time,
lack of door- to- door service, and transfers. These results suggest that respondents are rather
“ transit savvy” and live in a community with a relatively high quality transit service. Most
respondents reported using transit services at least once ( approximately 70 percent use the
Rossmoor bus, 60 percent use the County Connection bus, and 50 percent use BART). The
weighted scores for stairs on buses and trains (– 0.26) and stations (– 0.60) may reflect
knowledge of the Rossmoor bus, the County Connection bus, and BART trains in the area,
which do not have steep steps.
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Survey Results 19
Respondents were also asked to indicate which resources they use to obtain information about
transit. The most commonly used resources are paper schedules, the Rossmoor bus information
line, and brochures. Less commonly used resources are family or friends, the Internet, transit
training classes, and the 511 information line and Website.
Table 1 Response to Possible Barriers and Transit Improvements ( n= 105)
Questions and Possible Responses Analysis
What would increase your level of comfort taking transit? Percent of Respondentsa
a. Sum is more than 100% because multiple answers were possible.
More frequent schedule 50.5%
Better connections between different transit options 48.6%
More direct routes 44.8%
Easy- to- read schedules 38.1%
Later schedules 21.9%
Better safety measures 15.2%
More seating available 08.6%
What prevents you from using transit more frequently? Weighted Average Scoreb
b. strongly agree = – 2; agree = – 1; neutral = 0; disagree = 1; strongly disagree = 2
Takes too long 0.72
No door- to- door service 0.28
Must transfer 0.17
Not easy to get to stops/ stations – 0.06
Schedules hard to read – 0.19
Difficult to climb station stairs – 0.26
Do not know how to get information – 0.30
Difficult to pay fare – 0.46
Difficult to step on and off bus/ train – 0.60
Unfriendly service – 0.74
Unsafe – 0.76
Table 2 Sources Used to Find Transit Information ( n= 105)
Source Percent of Respondentsa
a. Sum is more than 100% because multiple answers were possible.
Paper schedule 52.4%
Rossmoor bus transportation information line 43.8%
Brochures 36.2%
Ask family or friend 19.0%
Internet 17.1%
Transit training 10.5%
511 transit line or Website 09.5%
20 Survey Results
Mineta Transportation Institute
TRANSIT- TRAINING- VIDEO RESPONSE
In the transit training video, researchers attempted to address a number of potential barriers to
transit use, including finding transit information, reading transit schedules, fare payment, bus
and train steps, and transit costs for the three services available to the Rossmoor community
( the Rossmoor bus, County Connection, and BART). As indicated in Table 1, on average, the
results of the pre- video survey indicate that respondents do not consider these to be significant
transit barriers. Thus, the video would likely have had little effect on participants who did not
perceive those attributes as transit barriers. The distribution of responses indicates that
approximately one- half of participants perceive these factors as barriers ( strongly disagree or
disagree) or are uncertain if they are ( neutral).
Overall, approximately 30 to 65 percent of those respondents who perceived the specified
factors as transit barriers indicated some positive change in perception after viewing the video.
The messages that educated viewers on how to obtain information on transit schedules, costs,
and payment appeared to generate the most positive change, but those that addressed
difficulties reading schedules and climbing stairs did not. A one- sided binomial test also
indicated a statistically significant ( α= 0.05) difference between respondents who had negative
perceptions before and after the video and those who had negative or neutral perceptions
before and positive perceptions after viewing the video message on obtaining information on
transit schedules ( p= 0.014), costs ( p= 0.014), and payment ( p= 0.029). The difference is
insignificant for difficulty reading schedules ( p= 0.421) and climbing stairs ( p= 0.421). This
last result may be explained by the video intervention’s quality or the respondents’ physical
abilities ( i. e., vision or walking), which are necessary conditions to read schedules and climb
stairs. The video did portray transit accommodations for certain disabilities, but the level of
these adjustments would not have met the needs of all respondents across transit services.
The transit training video takes viewers through specific transit steps for three services
( Rossmoor bus, County Connection, and BART) to make trips from Rossmoor to downtown
Walnut Creek, the John Muir Medical Center, and a nearby BART station. Before viewing the
video, participants were asked if they had previously used any of these transit services to go to
the destinations presented in the video or other locations. After viewing the video, respondents
were asked if they would use these transit services to go to specific destinations more
frequently and if they would use transit instead of driving to frequent destinations. The results
are presented in Figure 1. The positive change in stated use is greater than a continued
negative response to transit use for the destinations specified in the video and frequent
destinations ( with the exception of BART). In general, predicted transit travel to video
destinations reveals a somewhat greater improvement than travel to frequent destinations.
In addition, for each transit service and destination pair described in Figure 1, a one- tailed
binomial test was conducted between the proportion of respondents who did not use a service
and destination before and after viewing the video and those respondents who did not use a
service and destination before but indicated that they might after viewing the video. The
results show a statistically significant ( α= 0.05) difference for the Rossmoor bus ( p= 0.034) to
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Survey Results 21
frequent destinations; the County Connection bus to frequent destinations ( p< 0.001),
downtown Walnut Creek ( p< 0.001), and the John Muir Medical Center ( p< 0.001); and
BART to a nearby station in the video ( p= 0.004), but not BART to other frequent
destinations ( p= 0.381).
Prior to watching the video, participants were also asked what sources they used to obtain
transit information ( Table 2). After watching the video, they were asked what sources of
information were best suited for their personal transit use. The change in transit resources used
( and to be employed in the future) before and after viewing the video is presented in Figure 2.
The results indicate a positive change across all categories; however, the greatest changes are
for the Internet and 511. org ( both are featured in the video). The greatest negative change in
resources used before but not after the video are asking a friend or family member, paper
schedules, and the Rossmoor information line.
In addition, a one- tailed binomial test was conducted for each information source described in
Figure 2 to determine if there is a significant difference between the proportion of respondents
who selected an information source only after viewing the video and the remaining
respondents. Statistically significant ( α= 0.05) differences are revealed for paper schedules
( p= 0.001), the Rossmoor bus transportation information line ( p= 0.003), the Internet
( p= 0.042), a transit training class ( p= 0.017), and the 511 phone line or Website ( p= 0.002).
No statistically significant differences appear for brochures ( p= 0.136) and friends or family
( p= 0.119).
22 Survey Results
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Figure 1 Change in Respondents’ Stated Use Before and After Viewing Video
Figure 2 Change in Sources Used for Transit Information Before and After Viewing Video
No before
& Yes after
No before
& after
Yes before
& after
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
County Connection bus
to frequent destinations
( N= 126)
Rossmoor bus to
frequent destinations
( N= 119)
BART to frequent
destinations ( N= 113)
County Connection bus
to downtown Walnut
Creek ( N= 109)
County Connection bus
to John Muir Medical
Center ( N= 74)
BART to Rockridge
( N= 46)
Percent of responses, excluding
yes before and no after
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Paper schedule
( N= 83)
Rossmoor bus
transportation
info line ( N= 69)
Internet
( N= 48)
Brochures
( N= 67)
Ask a family
member or
friend ( N= 35)
Transit training
class ( N= 32)
511 phone line
or Website
( N= 41)
Respondents
Selected
before but
not after
Same before
and after
Selected
after the
video
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CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the authors applied principles of social learning and marketing to develop a
transit training video for residents in the Rossmoor retirement community in Walnut Creek,
California. The video features familiar community members successfully navigating specific
concerns and problems, as identified in the literature review and focus groups, related to
available transit to key community destinations. Residents were recruited to complete surveys
before and after viewing the video. Survey results provide some insight into respondents’
travel- related experiences, preferences, and constraints:
• Approximately 90 percent use autos as their primary travel mode, are able to drive, and
have a vehicle available for their household’s use; however, these proportions tend to
decline with respondents’ age.
• Before moving to Rossmoor, about 60 percent had lived in a community where they used
transit with some regularity; this proportion tends to increase with respondents’ age.
• Approximately 13 percent use transit as their primary travel mode, and 36 percent use it
two or more times a week.
• Most participants indicated that transit travel time, lack of door- to- door service, and
transfers are significant barriers to transit use; as a result, the most popular improvements
are more frequent service, better connections, and more direct routes.
In addition, survey results were also evaluated to explore the video intervention’s effectiveness
for promoting transit use among older travelers:
• The video messages that educated viewers about how to obtain information on transit
schedules, costs, and payment generated a significant and positive attitudinal change;
however, those that addressed difficulties reading schedules and climbing stairs did not,
perhaps because these tasks require a level of physical ability that cannot be fully addressed
by the video.
• After viewing the video, respondents indicated a significant and positive change in transit
use to the specific destinations portrayed in the video; however, results are mixed for
transit travel to more general destinations that are not explicitly portrayed in the video.
• The video also educated viewers about a broader range of information sources, such as the
Internet and 511. org. After viewing the video, respondents indicated a significant and
positive change in their future stated use of these information sources.
Future research is recommended to examine changes in actual transit use after viewing the
video, for example, by employing control groups and longitudinal analyses, and to compare
the relative effectiveness, in cost and behavioral change, for example, of the transit training
video to other social learning and marketing interventions.
24 Conclusions
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25
APPENDIX A
FOCUS GROUP PROTOCOL
26 Appendix A Focus Group Protocol
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1
Protocol for Mineta Transportation Institute Focus Groups
The Elderly and Public Transit: Minimizing Barriers and Maximizing Service
2 hours – Focus Group
15 minutes: Pre- Focus Group Information ( prior to focus group start)
 Sign- in sheet
 Permission to record ( i. e., video and/ or audio)
 Consent to participate ( focus group participation waiver) – 2 copies
 Intake questionnaire
 Table Tents
5 minutes: Focus Group Overview
 Moderator Introductions: My name is [ first] [ last], and I am a researcher at the
University of California, Berkeley. I will be moderating tonight’s focus group. I’d
like to thank you all for taking the time to participate in our study.
 Focus Group Overview and Purpose: The purpose of this focus group is to
identify concerns and barriers to transit use among elderly persons. We have
invited you to participate in this focus group today to better understand your
experiences as a transit user and to discuss transit features that may improve your
traveling experiences.
 Discussion Guidance: I want to stress that your participation is entirely
voluntary, that you may choose not to answer any of the questions we ask, and
that you may leave at any time you choose. We are video taping the session, so
that we can produce a written transcript of the discussion. Everything you say
here will be kept confidential; we will not identify you by name in the transcript
of the meeting or in our research reports. Before we start the discussion, I'd like to
lay down a couple of ground rules. First, it is important that we hear from
everyone tonight. I'd like to ask that you try to be aware of how much you're
talking and make sure that you're giving others a chance to share as well. I may at
times suggest that we move on to someone else, so that we use the little time that
we have efficiently. Second, it is also important that we get your responses to our
questions. If the discussion strays too much from the question I have asked, I may
suggest that we return to that question or move on to the next one. Third, to make
sure that we can hear what is being said, please refrain from side conversations
with your neighbors during the discussion. Most importantly, please tell us
whatever it is you're thinking. We are not looking for any particular answers -
we're here to hear what you have to say. It's okay to repeat what others have
already said if that's what you think, and it's okay to have a completely different
response if that's what you think.
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Appendix A Focus Group Protocol 27
2
• Participant Introductions: Before we start the questions, let's go around the
room and briefly introduce ourselves. Why don't you say your first name and tell
us how long you've lived or worked ( or both) in this community.
15 minutes: Participant Introductions & Current Modes
 Participant introductions
o Ask each participant to introduce him or herself and to describe their primary
mode of transportation just before coming to Rossmoor and now.
 Rossmoor buses
 City buses
 Bart, Muni, Caltrans
 Car
 Carpool
15 minutes: General Attitudes Towards Transit
 What are reasons why you think people use transit?
o Avoid traffic
o Avoid car costs, e. g., maintenance and gas prices
o Cannot afford their own a car
o Preserve air quality
o Do not have a driver’s license
o Are there specific demographic groups that use transit more than others?
 Racial groups
 Geographic groups: urban vs. suburban areas
 Age groups
 Socioeconomic status: lower income people?
 What do you think are reasons why a driver should or should not use transit?
o Create a list of (+) and (-) reasons why a driver should take transit
 What do you think are reasons why a senior should or should not use transit?
o Create a list of (+) and (-) reasons why a senior should take transit
15 minutes: Personal Transit Histories
Each participant should provide a brief history of their transit use
 Primary modes of transportation growing up
 When they began using transit
 How often they use transit
e. g., lived in an urban environment and took the bus to school
everyday
e. g., grew up in the age of the car and parents always took you
where you needed to go
• Why don’t they use transit more?
28 Appendix A Focus Group Protocol
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3
10 minutes: Break
20 minutes: Barriers and Transit Features
 Think about your last trip taking transit ( how long ago was this and what was the
purpose of your trip?). What were some of the transit features or experiences that
made your traveling experience pleasant?
o Features:
 Real- time arrival times
 Transit discounts
 Electronic display of transit stops
 Electronic voice- over of transit stops
 Physical disability services
 Bus shelters
 Drivers trained to provide assistance
 Travel training
o Experiences:
 Traveling in a group
 Friendlier driver
 Less crowded
 Easier walk to bus shelter
 Familiar with where I was going
 Think about your last trip taking transit again. What could have been different that
would have made it a more pleasant experience?
o Drop off closer to my destination
o Traveling in groups
o Smart cards – do not deal with change
o Traveling in a group
o Friendlier driver
o Less crowded
o Easier walk to bus shelter
o Familiar with where I was going
 What are the primary reasons preventing you from using transit? Comment on
physical barriers, concerns, worries)
o Difficult to read/ understand schedule
o Difficult to pay fare ( needed exact change, getting a ticket was confusing)
o Bus is unreliable; I do not like waiting
o Unfamiliarity of new places
o Confused when to get off and where to exit
o Bus shelters/ lack of
o Takes too long
o Not door- to- door
o Unfriendly drivers
o Do not know how to use transit
o Not safe
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Appendix A Focus Group Protocol 29
4
10 minutes: Self- Efficacy
 On a scale of 1 to 10 ( with 10 being very confident and 1 not very confident), how
confident do you feel about taking a transit ride by yourself?
 On a scale of 1 to 10 ( with 10 being very confident and 1 not very confident), how
confident do you feel about taking a transit ride in a group?
 What do you think would increase your confidence of taking transit?
o Training workshops, user friendly resources, going in groups
25 minutes: Possible interventions or Countermeasures
 Would you be willing to try new methods of obtaining transit information, such as
attending workshops, video screenings, using Internet sites ( which methods do
you think would be most helpful and why)?
 Do you think that a video, showing key transit steps, would provide you with
greater confidence?
 ( If time allows…) What resources were most helpful when using transit systems
in the past? Were there any that you found unhelpful?
o Educational campaigns
o Brochures – where did you find them? Were they easy to use?
o Videos
o Transit classes/ traveling sessions
o Learned from a friend
o 511
5 minutes: Final Questions
 Final report availability
 Incentives
Adjourn and Incentives
30 Appendix A Focus Group Protocol
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31
APPENDIX B
TRANSPORTATION QUESTIONNAIRE
32 Appendix B Transportation Questionnaire
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1
Mineta Transportation Institute Older Mobility Study
The Elderly and Public Transit: Minimizing Barriers and Maximizing
Service
TRANSPORTATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Thank you for completing this questionnaire. Please be assured that all
answers are kept confidential.
Basic Demographics:
Are you... □ female □ male?
What is your age?
□ 55 to 64 □ 65- 74 □ 75- 84
□ 85 or older
What is your current marital status?
□ Single □ Married □ Separated □ Divorced □ Widowed
What is the last level of school that you completed?
□ Grade School □ Some High School
□ Graduated High School □ Some College
□ Associate’s Degree □ Bachelor’s Degree
□ Some Graduate School □ Master’s Degree
□ Ph. D. or Higher □ Other, Please Specify_______
Please indicate the number of your household members ( including
yourself) that fall into the different age groups listed below.
___ 0- 5 ___ 6- 15 ___ 16- 18 ___ 19- 23 ___ 24- 44
___ 45- 64 ___ 65- 74 ___ 75- 84 ___ 85 or older
Mineta Transportation Institute
Appendix B Transportation Questionnaire 33
2
Do you use a… □ cellular phone
□ Personal Digital Assistant ( PDA)
□ e- mail
□ the Internet
What was your household’s 2004 pre- tax income?
□ Under $ 10, 000 □ $ 10,000- $ 19,999
□ $ 20,000 - $ 49.999 □ $ 50,000 - $ 79.999
□ $ 80,000- $ 109,999 □ More than $ 110,000
□ Decline to respond
Transportation Characteristics:
Please check the modes of transportation you use more than two days a
week.
□ Drive Alone □ Carpool □ Bus
□ BART □ Bike □ Walk
□ Other, please specify_______
Prior to moving to Rossmoor, have you ever lived or worked in a
community in which you typically used transit one or more times a week?
□ Yes □ No
Do you drive?
□ Yes □ No
Is private auto your primary mode?
□ Yes □ No
Is transit your primary mode?
□ Yes □ No
How many people in your household drive ( including yourself)?_______
34 Appendix B Transportation Questionnaire
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3
How many autos are available to your household?______
Have you ever taken any of the following transportation modes?
□ City Bus
□ Rossmoor Bus
□ Bike
□ Walk
□ Muni
□ BART
□ Personal car
□ Carpool
□ Other, please specify_______
What are frequent destinations of yours when you use transit?
□ Work commute
□ Doctor’s visit
□ Visiting relatives and friends
□ Running errands
□ Shopping
□ Leisure travel
□ Other, please specify_______ __ I don’t use transit
Familiarity with Transit:
How would you describe your familiarity with transit?
Unfamiliar Somewhat familiar Familiar Very Familiar
□ □ □ □
How confident do you feel about undertaking a trip via transit to one of your
frequent destinations by yourself?
Not confident at all Somewhat confident Confident Very Confident
□ □ □ □
How confident do you feel about undertaking a transit ride to one of your
frequent destinations in a group?
Not confident at all Somewhat confident Confident Very Confident
□ □ □ □
What would increase your level of comfort of taking transit? Please respond
in a few sentences.
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Appendix B Transportation Questionnaire 35
4
What is the primary resource you use to find transit information?
□ Paper schedule from the bus station
□ Rossmoor bus transportation info line
□ Internet
□ Brochures
□ Ask a family member or friend to help you research
□ Transit workshop
□ Travel training class
□ 511 operator assistance
□ Other ( Please specify):_______________________________________
_ Not applicable. I don’t use transit
Barriers to Transit Use:
What prevents you from using transit more often? ( Please respond by
checking one of the following response options: I strongly disagree, I
disagree, I am neutral, I agree, I strongly agree)
1. It is difficult to read the bus or train schedules
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
2. Transit stations are not easily accessible ( bus shelters, BART station, etc)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
3. It does not provide door- to- door service
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
4. Involves a transfer to get to my destination
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
36 Appendix B Transportation Questionnaire
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5
5. The service is unfriendly
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
6. It is too expensive
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
7. Takes longer to get to my destination than by car
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
8. It is unsafe
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
9. I am uncomfortable going to unfamiliar areas
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
10. Friends or family have advised against it
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
11. It is difficult stepping on or off the bus or train
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
12. It is difficult using the station stairs
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
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Appendix B Transportation Questionnaire 37
6
13. It is difficult to purchase tickets or pay the fare ( e. g., requires exact
change)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
14. I do not know where to find information about how to take transit
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
Thank you very much for your cooperation!
38 Appendix B Transportation Questionnaire
Mineta Transportation Institute
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39
APPENDIX C
VIDEO SURVEY— BEFORE AND AFTER
40 Appendix C Video Survey— Before and After
Mineta Transportation Institute
1
The Elderly and Public Transit:
Minimizing Barriers and Maximizing Service
BEFORE— QUESTIONNAIRE
Survey No. .
Please complete this survey prior to the video presentation. This survey is
anonymous— please do not write your name on any of these pages.
Thank you for contributing to our research.
In the first section, we would like to learn about your transportation patterns:
T. 1. Please indicate the modes of transportation you use more than two days
per week. Please check all that apply.
□ County Connection Bus
□ Rossmoor Bus
□ Bike
□ Walk
□ BART
□ Personal auto
□ Carpool
□ Other, please specify_______
T. 2. Prior to moving to Rossmoor, have you ever lived or worked in a community in which
you typically used transit one or more times per week?
□ Yes □ No
T. 3. Do you drive?
□ Yes □ No
T. 4. Is the private auto your primary mode of transportation?
□ Yes □ No
T. 5. Is transit your primary mode of transportation?
□ Yes □ No
T. 6. How many people in your household drive ( including yourself)?_______
T. 7. How many autos are available to your household?______
Mineta Transportation Institute
Appendix C Video Survey— Before and After 41
2
T. 8. Have you ever taken any of the following transportation modes? Please check all that
apply.
□ County Connection Bus
□ Rossmoor Bus
□ Bike
□ Walk
□ Muni
□ BART
□ Personal car
□ Carpool
□ Other, please specify_______
T. 9. To what destinations, if any, do you travel two or more times per week? Please check
all that apply.
□ Work commute
□ Doctor’s visit
□ Visiting relatives and friends
□ Running errands
□ Shopping
□ Leisure travel
□ Other, please specify_______
T. 10. What transportation modes do you use when traveling to these frequent
destinations? Please check all that apply.
□ County Connection Bus
□ Rossmoor Bus
□ Bike
□ Walk
□ Muni
□ BART
□ Personal car
□ Carpool
□ Other, please specify_______
The next section will help us understand what modes of transportation you prefer for
different types of trips.
S. 1. Please respond to the following statement by choosing the answer option that best
expresses your opinion:
I feel comfortable driving by myself.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
S. 2 How comfortable do you feel driving by yourself to one of your frequent destinations?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
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S. 3. How comfortable would you feel taking a Rossmoor bus to one of your frequent
destinations by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. None of my frequent destinations is accessible by Rossmoor buses.
□ I do not know this transit provider.
S. 4 How comfortable would you feel taking a County Connection bus to one of your
frequent destinations by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. None of my frequent destinations is accessible by County
Connection buses.
□ I do not know this transit provider.
S. 5. How comfortable would you feel taking a BART train to one of your frequent
destinations by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. None of my frequent destinations is accessible by BART.
□ I do not know this transit provider.
S. 6. How comfortable do you feel driving by yourself to Downtown Walnut Creek?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
S. 7. How comfortable would you feel taking a County Connection Bus to Downtown
Walnut Creek by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ I do not know this transit provider.
S. 8. Do you use County Connection buses when going to Downtown Walnut
Creek?
□ Yes □ No
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S. 9. How comfortable do you feel driving by yourself to John Muir Medical Center?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
S. 10. How comfortable would you feel taking a County Connection bus to John Muir
Medical Center by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. I am not familiar with this transit provider.
S. 11. Do you use County Connection buses when going to John Muir Medical
Center?
□ Yes □ No
□ Not applicable. I never travel to this destination.
S. 12. How comfortable do you feel driving by yourself to Rockridge?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. I am not familiar with this destination.
S. 13. How comfortable would you feel taking a BART train from Walnut Creek to
Rockridge by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. I am not familiar with this destination.
□ I do not know this transit provider.
S. 14. Do you use BART when going to Rockridge?
□ Yes □ No
□ Not applicable. I am not familiar with this destination.
□ Not applicable. I never travel to this destination.
S. 15. How confident do you feel about finding transit information when you need it?
Not confident at all Somewhat confident Confident Very confident
□ □ □ □
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S. 16. How would you describe your familiarity with transit?
Unfamiliar Somewhat familiar Familiar Very Familiar
□ □ □ □
S. 17. In your opinion, how familiar with transit is the majority of senior citizens?
Unfamiliar Somewhat familiar Familiar Very Familiar
□ □ □ □
S. 18. To what destinations, if any, do you take transit two or more times per week? Please
check all that apply.
□ Not applicable. I use transit less often or not at all.
□ Work commute
□ Doctor’s visit
□ Visiting relatives and friends
□ Running errands
□ Shopping
□ Leisure travel
□ Other, please specify_________________________
S. 19. To what destinations, if any, do you use transit, but once per week or less often?
Please check all that apply.
□ Not applicable. I never use transit.
□ Work commute
□ Doctor’s visit
□ Visiting relatives and friends
□ Running errands
□ Shopping
□ Leisure travel
□ Other, please specify_________________________
S. 20. What would increase your level of comfort with taking transit? Please check all that
apply.
□ Better connections between different transit options
□ More frequent schedule ( shorter waits)
□ More direct routes
□ Later schedules ( e. g., evening and night services)
□ Better safety measures ( e. g., visible security, better lighting)
□ More seating available
□ Easy- to- read schedules
□ Easier parking at transit stations/ bus terminals
□ Other. Please specify _______________________________
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I. 1. When using transit, what are the resources you use to find transit information?
Please check all that apply.
□ Not applicable. I don’t use transit
□ Paper schedule from the bus station
□ Rossmoor bus transportation info line
□ Internet
□ Brochures
□ Ask a family member or friend
□ Transit training class
□ 511 transit & traffic information phone line or website
□ Other ( Please specify):____________
I. 2. Are you familiar with the following sources of transit information? Please check all
that apply.
□ County Connection ( CCCTA) website
□ BART website
□ 511. org website
□ 511 transit & traffic information phone line
□ Rossmoor bus transportation info line
I. 3. Have you ever participated in a transit training class?
□ Yes □ No
I. 4. How confident do you feel about finding transit information should you need it?
Not confident at all Somewhat confident Confident Very confident
□ □ □ □
This section will help us identify potential barriers to transit use.
46 Appendix C Video Survey— Before and After
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7
This section will help us identify potential barriers to transit use.
What prevents you from using transit/ from using transit more often? ( Please respond by
checking one of the following response options: I strongly disagree, I disagree, I am neutral, I
agree, I agree strongly)
1. It is difficult to read the bus or train schedules
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
2. Transit stations are not easily accessible ( bus shelters, BART station, etc)
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
3. It does not provide door- to- door service
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
4. Involves a transfer to get to my destination
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
5. The service is unfriendly
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
6. It is too expensive
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
7. Takes longer to get to my destination than by car
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
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8. It is unsafe
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
9. I am uncomfortable going to unfamiliar areas
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
10. Friends or family have advised against it
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
11. It is difficult stepping on or off the bus or train
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
12. It is difficult using the station stairs
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
13. It is difficult to purchase tickets or pay the fare
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
14. I do not know where to find information about how to take transit
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
Thank you very much for your cooperation!
48 Appendix C Video Survey— Before and After
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PLEASE DO NOT FILL OUT THE NEXT
PAGES UNTIL AFTER THE VIDEO PRESENTATIION.
Please complete this part of the questionnaire only after you
finished watching the video presentation.
Mineta Transportation Institute
Appendix C Video Survey— Before and After 49
10
Please complete this part of the questionnaire only after you
finished watching the video presentation.
AFTER— QUESTIONNAIRE
Please complete this second, shorter questionnaire after the video presentation.
Thank you for contributing to our research.
SA. 1. Now that you have seen the video presentation, would you consider taking transit more
frequently?
□ Yes □ No
SA. 2. Which transit options, if any, would you consider taking more frequently. Please check
all that apply.
□ County Connection bus □ Rossmoor bus
□ BART □ Other, please specify_____________
□ Not applicable.
SA. 3. How comfortable would you feel taking a Rossmoor bus to one of your frequent
destinations by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. None of my frequent destinations is accessible by Rossmoor buses.
SA. 4. How comfortable would you feel taking a County Connection bus to one of your
frequent destinations by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. None of my frequent destinations is accessible by County
Connection buses.
SA. 5. How comfortable would you feel taking a BART train to one of your frequent
destinations by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. None of my frequent destinations is accessible by BART.
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SA. 6. How comfortable would you feel taking a County Connection Bus to Downtown
Walnut Creek by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
SA. 7. How comfortable would you feel taking a County Connection bus to John Muir
Medical Center by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
SA. 8. How comfortable would you feel taking a BART train from Walnut Creek to
Rockridge by yourself?
Not comfortable at all Somewhat comfortable Comfortable Very comfortable
□ □ □ □
□ Not applicable. I am not familiar with this destination.
SA. 10. Would you consider taking a County Connection bus to Downtown Walnut
instead of driving?
□ Yes □ No
□ Not applicable. I never travel to this destination.
SA. 11. Would you consider taking a County Connection bus to John Muir Medical Center
instead of driving?
□ Yes □ No
□ Not applicable. I never travel to this destination.
SA. 12. Would you consider taking a BART train to Rockridge instead of driving?
□ Yes □ No
□ Not applicable. I never travel to this destination.
Please continue on the next page.
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Appendix C Video Survey— Before and After 51
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IA. 1. What sources of transit information are best suited for your personal transit use?
□ Not applicable. I don’t use transit.
□ Paper schedule from the bus station
□ Rossmoor bus transportation info line
□ Internet
□ Brochures
□ Ask a family member or friend
□ Transit workshop
□ Travel training class
□ 511. org website
□ 511 transit information phone line
□ Other ( Please specify):_______________
IA. 2. Would you use one of the following sources of transit information when
planning your next transit trip? Please check all that apply.
□ County Connection ( CCCTA) website
□ BART website
□ 511. org website
□ 511 transit & traffic information phone line
□ Rossmoor bus transportation info line
□ Not applicable.
IA. 3. How confident do you feel about finding transit information should you need it?
Not confident at all Somewhat confident Confident Very confident
□ □ □ □
Please respond to the following questions by checking the answer option that best expresses
your opinion.
BTA. 1. It is difficult to read the bus or train schedules.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
52 Appendix C Video Survey— Before and After
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BTA. 2. When using transit, it is difficult stepping on or off the bus or train.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
BTA. 3. When using transit, it is difficult to purchase tickets or pay the fare.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
BTA. 4 Transit is expensive.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
BTA. 5. I do not know where to find information about how to take transit.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Strongly
□ □ □ □ □
The last section asks for basic demographic data.
B. 1. Are you... □ female □ male?
B. 2. What is your age?
□ 55 to 64 □ 65- 74 □ 75- 84 □ 85 or older
B. 3. What is your current marital status?
□ Single □ Married □ Separated □ Divorced □ Widowed
B. 4. What is the last level of education that you completed?
□ Grade School □ Some High School
□ Graduated High School □ Some College
□ Associate’s Degree □ Bachelor’s Degree
□ Some Graduate School □ Master’s Degree
□ Ph. D. or Higher □ Other, Please Specify___________
B. 5. How many people live in your household? ________
B. 6. How long have you been living in Rossmoor? ____________
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B. 7. What was your household’s 2005 pre- tax income?
□ Under $ 10, 000 □ $ 10,000- $ 19,999
□ $ 20,000 - $ 49.999 □ $ 50,000 - $ 79.999
□ $ 80,000- $ 109,999 □ More than $ 110,000
□ Decline to respond
B. 8. Do you use a… □ cellular phone
□ Personal Digital Assistant ( PDA)
□ e- mail
□ the Internet
Thank you very much for your cooperation!
54 Appendix C Video Survey— Before and After
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ENDNOTES
Executive Summary and Introduction
1. Jon E. Burkhardt, Adam T. McGavock, Charles A. Nelson, and Christopher G. B.
Mitchell, “ Improving Public Transit Options for Older Persons,” Transit Cooperative
Research Program Report 82, vol. 2, Transportation Research Board, Washington DC, 2002.
2. Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000, Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department
of Commerce, 2000, table DP- 1.
3. Sandra Rosenbloom, “ Mobility of the Elderly: Good News and Bad News,” Transportation
in an Aging Society: A Decade of Experience, Transportation Research Board Conference
Proceedings 27, 1999.
4. Richard A. Marottoli, Carlos Mendes de Leon, Thomas A. Glass, Christianna S. Williams,
Leo M. Cooney, and Lisa F. Berkman, “ Consequences of Driving Cessation: Decreased
Out- of- Home Activity Levels,” Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and
Social Sciences, vol. 55, 2000, 334– 340.
5. Megan Holmes, Sheila Sarkar, Mohammad Emami, and David Shaules, “ Travel Patterns
and Concerns of Suburban Elderly in San Diego County,” CD- ROM, Transportation
Research Board of the National Academies, Washington DC, 2002, original paper
submittal; Anita Stowell- Ritter, Audrey Straight, and Ed Evans, Understanding Senior
Transportation: Report and Analysis of a Survey of Consumers Age 50+, AARP Public Policy
Institute, 2002.
6. M. Holmes et al., “ Travel Patterns.”
7. Burkhardt et al., “ Improving Public Transit.”
8. Ibid.
9. Business, Transportation and Housing Agency, “ An Analysis of Public Transportation to
Attract Non- Traditional Transit Riders in California,” California Department of
Transportation, April 2003, http:// www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ MassTrans/
Non- Traditional_ Ridership. htm ( accessed on July 28, 2006).
10. The transit- use video Transit Explained: Getting around the Bay Area is available online at
www. path. berkeley. edu/ path_ downloads/ Video/ IMR/ Rossmoor- Final. mpg.
56 Endnotes
Mineta Transportation Institute
Literature Review
11. Rosenbloom, “ Mobility of the Elderly”; Andrew Scharlach, Fernando Torres- Gil, and
Brian Kaskie, Strategic Planning Framework for an Aging Population; California Policy
Research Center Report ( CRPC), Strategic Planning on Aging Series, 2001; Ronald Lee,
Timothy Miller, and Ryan D. Edwards, The Growth and Aging of California’s Population:
Demographic and Fiscal Projections, Characteristics and Service Needs, CRPC Special Report:
Technical Assistance Program, 2003; Jon E. Burkhardt, “ Mobility Changes: Their Nature,
Effects, and Meaning for Elders Who Reduce or Cease Driving,” Transportation Research
Record, paper no. 99- 1416, 1999.
12. Burkhardt et al., “ Improving Public Transit.”
13. Scharlach et al., Strategic Planning Framework.
14. Ibid.
15. Rosenbloom, “ Mobility of the Elderly.”
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. James McKnight, “ The Freedom of the Open Road: Driving and Older Adults,” Journal
of the American Society on Aging, Summer 2003, http:// www. asaging. org/
generations/ gen27- 2/ article. cfm ( accessed on July 28, 2006).
20. Enzo C. Cerrelli, “ Crash Data and Rates for Age- Sex Groups of Drivers,” National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration Research Note, January 1998; NHTSA, Traffic
Safety Facts: 2003 Data: Older Population, U. S. DOT, http:// www- nrd. nhtsa. dot. gov/ pdf/
nrd- 30/ NCSA/ TSF2003/ 809766. pdf ( accessed July 28, 2006).
21. McKnight, “ Freedom.”
22. Ibid.
23. Holmes et al., “ Travel Patterns.”
24. McKnight, “ Freedom.”
25. Burkhardt, “ Mobility Changes.”
26. Frank Douma and Chandler Duncan, “ Using ITS to Better Serve Diverse Populations:
Final Report,” Minnesota DOT Guidestar 2002 Research Project, August 2004; Demetra V.
Collia, Joy Sharp, and Lee Giesbrecht, “ The 2001 National Household Survey: A Look into
the Travel Patterns of Older Americans,” Journal of Safety Research, vol. 34, 2003, 461– 470.
27. Stowell- Ritter, “ Understanding Senior Transportation.”
28. Marottoli et al., “ Consequences of Driving Cessation.”
Mineta Transportation Institute
Endnotes 57
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Burkhardt et al.,“ Improving Public Transit”; Holmes et al., “ Travel Patterns”;
Stowell- Ritter et al., “ Understanding Senior Transportation”; David Koffman and Roger
Salstrom, How Best to Serve Seniors on Existing Transit Services, Mineta Transportation
Institute report no. FHWA/ CA/ OR- 2001- 23, 2001; Suen S. Ling and Lalita Sen,
“ Mobility Options for Seniors,” Transportation in an Aging Society: A Decade of
Experience, Transportation Research Board Conference Proceedings 27, 2004.
32. Koffman and Salstrom, “ How Best to Serve.”
33. Burkhardt et al., “ Improving Public Transit”; Koffman and Salstrom, “ How Best to
Serve.”
34. Burkhardt et al., “ Improving Public Transit.”
35. Burkhardt et al., “ Improving Public Transit”; Koffman and Salstrom, “ How Best to
Serve.”
36. Burkhardt et al., “ Improving Public Transit.”
37. Ibid., 15.
38. California Department of Transportation, “ An Analysis of Public Transportation to
Attract Non- Traditional Transit Riders in California,” Business, Transportation and
Housing Agency, April 2003, http:// www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ MassTrans/
Non- Traditional_ Ridership. htm ( accessed on July 28, 2006), 6.
39. Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory ( Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977), 12.
40. Philip Kotler, Ned Roberto, and Nancy Lee, Social Marketing: Improving the Quality of Life,
2nd ed. ( Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2003), 5.
41. Edward W. Maibach and Davis Cotton, “ Moving People to Behavior Change: A Staged
Social Cognitive Approach to Message Design,” Designing Health Messages, E. W. Maibach
and R. L. Parrott, eds. ( Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1995).
42. Alan R. Andreasen, Marketing Social Change: Changing Behavior to Promote Health, Social
Development, and the Environment ( San Francisco: Jossey- Bass Publishers, 1995).
43. Anne R. Kearney and Raymond De Young, “ A Knowledge- Based Intervention for
Promoting Carpooling,” Environment and Behavior, vol. 27, no. 5, 1995, 650– 678.
44. Ibid., 650.
45. Ibid., 650.
46. Sjef Siero, Martin Boon, Gerjo Kok, and Frans Siero, “ Modification of Driving Behavior
in a Large Transport Organization: A Field Experiment,” Journal of Applied Psychology, vol.
7, no. 3, 1989, 417– 423.
58 Endnotes
Mineta Transportation Institute
47. Ibid., 417.
48. Geoff J. Syme, Clive Seligman, Steven J. Kantola, and Duncan K. MacPherson,
“ Evaluating a Television Campaign to Promote Petrol Conservation,” Environment and
Behavior, vol. 19, no. 4, 1987, 444– 461.
49. Ibid., 444.
50. Susan Shaheen, Dynamics in Behavioral Adaptation to a Transportation Innovation: A Case
Study of CarLink— A Smart Carsharing System, University of California– Davis, report no.
UCD- ITS- RR- 99- 16, October 1999, 232.
Rossmoor Senior Adult Community
51. County Connection provides fixed- route and paratransit service throughout the Central
Contra Costa communities of Clayton, Concord, Martinez, Pleasant Hill, Walnut Creek,
Danville, San Ramon, Lafayette, Orinda, and Moraga, as well as unincorporated
communities.
Focus Group Findings
52. 511. org is a free phone and Web service that consolidates Bay Area transportation
information, including up- to- the- minute information on traffic conditions, incidents, and
driving times; schedule, route, and fare information for the Bay Area’s public
transportation services; instant carpool and vanpool referrals; bicycling information; and
more.
Mineta Transportation Institute
59
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
BART Bay Area Rapid Transit
CD- ROM Compact disc read- only memory
CPRC California Policy Research Center
DOT Department of Transportation
ITS Intelligent transportation systems
MTI Mineta Transportation Institute
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
NPTS National Personal Transportation Survey
PATH Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways
RAPOC Research Associates Policy Oversight Committee
TRB Transportation Research Board
UC University of California
U. S. DOT United States Department of Transportation
60 Abbreviations and Acronyms
Mineta Transportation Institute
Mineta Transportation Institute
61
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andreasen, Alan R. Marketing Social Change: Changing Behavior to Promote Health, Social
Development, and the Environment. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass Publishers, 1995.
Bandura, Albert. Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977.
Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce. Profile of General Demographic
Characteristics: 2000, table DP- 1.
Burkhardt, Jon E. “ Mobility Changes: Their Nature, Effects, and Meaning for Elders Who
Reduce or Cease Driving.” Transportation Research Record, paper no. 99- 1416, 1999.
Burkhardt, Jon E., Adam T. McGavock, Charles A. Nelson, and Christopher G. B. Mitchell.
“ Improving Public Transit Options for Older Persons.” Transit Cooperative Research
Program Report 82, vol. 2. Washington DC: Transportation Research Board, 2002.
California Department of Transportation. “ An Analysis of Public Transportation to Attract
Non- Traditional Transit Riders in California.” Business, Transportation and Housing
Agency. April 2003. http:// www. dot. ca. gov/ hq/ MassTrans/ Non- Traditional_ Ridership. htm.
Cerrelli, Enzo C. “ Crash Data and Rates for Age- Sex Groups of Drivers.” National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration Research Note. January 1998.
Collia, Demetra V., Joy Sharp, and Lee Giesbrecht. “ The 2001 National Household Survey: A
Look into the Travel Patterns of Older Americans,” Journal of Safety Research 34 ( 2003):
461– 470.
Douma, Frank and Chandler Duncan. “ Using ITS to Better Serve Diverse Populations: Final
Report.” Minnesota DOT Guidestar 2002 Research Project, August 2004.
Holmes, Megan, Sheila Sarkar, Mohammad Emami, and David Shaules. “ Travel Patterns and
Concerns of Suburban Elderly in San Diego County.” CD- ROM. Washington DC:
Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, 2002.
Kearney, Anne R. and Raymond De Young. “ A Knowledge- Based Intervention for Promoting
Carpooling.” Environment and Behavior 27, no. 5 ( 1995): 650– 678.
Koffman, David and Roger Salstrom. How Best to Serve Seniors on Existing Transit Services. San
José, CA: Mineta Transportation Institute, report no. FHWA/ CA/ OR- 2001- 23, 2001.
Kotler, Philip, Ned Roberto, and Nancy Lee. Social Marketing: Improving the Quality of Life, 2nd
ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2003.
Lee, Ronald, Timothy Miller, and Ryan D. Edwards. The Growth and Aging of California’s
Population: Demographic and Fiscal Projections, Characteristics and Service Needs. California
Policy Research Center Special Report: Technical Assistance Program, 2003.
62 Bibliography
Mineta Transportation Institute
Maibach, Edward and Davis Cotton. “ Moving People to Behavior Change: A Staged Social
Cognitive Approach to Message Design.” Designing Health Messages. Edward W. Maibach
and Roxanne Louiselle Parrott, eds. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1995.
Marottoli, Richard A., Carlos Mendes de Leon, Thomas A. Glass, Christianna S. Williams,
Leo M. Cooney, and Lisa F. Berkman. “ Consequences of Driving Cessation: Decreased
Out- of- Home Activity Levels.” Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and
Social Sciences 55 ( 2000): 334– 340.
McKnight, James. “ The Freedom of the Open Road: Driving and Older Adults.” Journal of the
American Society on Aging, Summer 2003. http:// www. asaging. org/ generations/
gen27- 2/ article. cfm ( accessed July 28, 2006).
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic Safety Facts: 2003 Data, Older
Population. U. S. DOT. http:// www- nrd. nhtsa. dot. gov/ pdf/ nrd- 30/ NCSA/ TSF2003/
809766. pdf ( accessed July 28, 2006).
Rosenbloom, Sandra. “ Mobility of the Elderly: Good News and Bad News.” Transportation in
an Aging Society: A Decade of Experience. Transportation Research Board Conference
Proceedings 27, 1999.
Scharlach, Andrew, Fernando Torres- Gil, and Brian Kaskie. Strategic Planning Framework for an
Aging Population. CPRC Report: Strategic Planning on Aging Series, 2001.
Shaheen, Susan. Dynamics in Behavioral Adaptation to a Transportation Innovation: A Case Study of
CarLink— A Smart Carsharing System. Davis, CA: UCD- ITS- RR- 99- 16, October 1999,
232.
Siero, Sjef, Martin Boon, Gerjo Kok, and Frans Siero. “ Modification of Driving Behavior in a
Large Transport Organization: A Field Experiment.” Journal of Applied Psychology 7, no. 3
( 1989): 417– 423.
Stowell- Ritter, Anita, Audrey Straight, and Ed Evans. Understanding Senior Transportation
Report and Analysis of a Survey of Consumers Age 50+. AARP Public Policy Institute, 2002.
Suen, S. Ling and Lalita Sen. “ Mobility Options for Seniors.” Transportation in an Aging Society:
A Decade of Experience. Transportation Research Board Conference Proceedings 27, 2004.
Syme, Geoff J., Clive Seligman, Steven J. Kantola, and Duncan K. MacPherson. “ Evaluating a
Television Campaign to Promote Petrol Conservation.” Environment and Behavior 19, no. 4
( 1987): 444– 461.
Mineta Transportation Institute
63
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Susan Shaheen, Ph. D.
Dr. Susan Shaheen holds a joint research faculty appointment at California Partners for
Advanced Transit and Highways ( PATH), headquartered at the University of
California– Berkeley, and at the University of California– Davis’s Institute of Transportation
Studies. In August 2003, Susan became the Policy & Behavioral Research Program Leader at
California PATH. In November 2000, she was honored as the first Honda Distinguished
Scholar in Transportation at UC Davis. Susan has a Ph. D. in ecology, focusing on technology
management and the energy and environmental aspects of transportation. She has 16 years of
professional experience in transportation and environmental policy, has authored 25 journal
articles and over 40 reports and publications, and is co- editor of a book. She has served on the
ITS World Congress program committee since 2002 and is the chair of the New Public
Transportation Systems and Technology Committee of the Transportation Research Board.
Caroline Rodier, Ph. D.
Dr. Caroline Rodier’s research interests include transportation policy and planning, the
behavior effects of new technology applications in transportation, elderly travel behavior, and
land- use and travel- demand modeling. She is currently a research engineer at California
Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways ( PATH), headquartered at the University of
California– Berkeley. Some of her current projects include a behavioral evaluation of a
transit- based smart parking field test; a statewide public opinion survey on automated speed
enforcement; a feasibility analysis of a virtual compliance station for commercial vehicles;
social marketing interventions to enhance older traveler mobility; and analyses of modeling
uncertainty in the context of environmental impact and air quality conformity processes. She
has authored 16 journal articles, 29 proceedings articles, and 22 research reports.
64 About the Authors
Mineta Transportation Institute
Mineta Transportation Institute
65
PEER REVIEW
San José State University, of the California State University system, and the MTI Board of
Trustees have agreed upon a peer view process to ensure that the results presented are based
upon a professionally acceptable research protocol.
Research projects begin with the approval of a scope of work by the sponsoring entities, with
in- process reviews by the MTI research director and the project sponsor. Periodic progress
reports are provided to the MTI research director and the Research Associates Policy Oversight
Committee ( RAPOC). Review of the draft research product is conducted by the Research
Committee of the board of trustees and may include invited critiques from other professionals
in the subject field. The review is based on the professional propriety of the research
methodology.
66 Peer Review
Mineta Transportation Institute
Funded by
U. S. Department of
Transportation and
California Department
of Transportation